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VICHY WEB |
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| THE VICHY
GOVERNMENT
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INTRODUCTION
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Vichy’s
Intellectual Origins In
terms of political philosophy Vichy was a diverse regime with its
Ministers drawn from several different currents, ranging between
traditionalists and modernisers. It is important to take this into account
when considering the politics of Vichy. Also one should bear in mind that
its politics evolved over time with the traditionalists dominating at the
outset but by 1944 a fascist-inspired current was clearly in evidence.
Owing to increasing German pressure Vichy’s political autonomy declined
with time with the result that its autonomous political philosophy
increasingly took a back seat. Vichy’s
traditionalist philosophy originated with the writers who had articulated
a spiritual challenge to Revolutionary France. Many of these were
associated with the nationalism of the beginning of the 20th
century. The nationalist writer Maurice Barrès
had written of France as an organic society whose key values were a
respect for her ancestry and the values of rural culture in opposition to
the materialist rootlessness of urban, industrialised society. Prominent
amongst the nationalists of the early 20th Century was the
monarchist Charles Maurras (1868-1952) who founded the far right
organisation ‘Action Française’ which was to be a key influence on
the traditionalists at Vichy. Maurras insisted on the concept of there
being a ‘true France’ from which the forces of the ‘anti-France’
should be excluded. Maurras defined the ‘anti-France’ in terms of
Socialists, Radical Republicans, Freemasons, Protestants, foreigners and
Jews. Within Vichy nationalism there was a clear anti-Semitic current
which was reminiscent of the writings of anti-Dreyfusards such as Edouard
Drumont at the turn of the century. More
recent influences included the nationalist movements of the 1930s, such
the Croix de Feu. The
regime was also influenced by the authoritarian, nationalist movements
which had been established in Italy under Mussolini, in Germany under
Hitler, in Spain under Franco and in Portugal under Salazar. Franco and
Salazar were particular points of reference for the traditionalists at
Vichy. There are clearly a number of themes common to these authoritarian
regimes and Vichy: the cult of the leader, the growth of police
repression, a redefining of notions of justice, the rejection of liberal
democracy, hostility towards both capitalism and socialism and the theme
of national regeneration. However there are some important differences
between Vichy and the fascist regimes, particularly that of Germany. Vichy
did not challenge traditional hierarchies in the way the Nazis did.
Although Vichy may have used violence in its police repression, war and
violence were not celebrated in the same way as under the Nazis. Also
whilst both Vichy and the Nazis tried to indoctrinate the young, youth and
dynamism were fundaments of the Nazi regime itself whereas Vichy was a
gerontocracy (government by old men). Vichy ministers, with a few
exceptions, rejected totalitarianism on the Nazi model and the idea of a
single party or a single youth group.
In
the economic sphere Vichy also drew on the knowledge of the technocrats.
These were specialist experts often with a non-conformist leaning. Edouard
Daladier’s government in the late 1930s had already facilitated the
entry of such experts into the corridors of power in an attempt to
maximise productivity. The same search for economic efficiency encouraged
the opening up of some of the economic ministries to technocrats during
the Vichy years. These technocrats were clearly modernisers and therefore
stand in apparent opposition to the traditionalist philosophies which
dominated so much of Vichy’s early discourse. Vichy
was also strongly influenced by the Veteran associations of the inter-war
period. As there were so many people who had suffered as a consequence of
World War One these veterans associations formed a powerful lobby group. Finally,
although Vichy was very much a right wing government there were a few
dissidents from the left, (such as the radical Georges Bonnet or the
socialist Paul Faure), who were attracted to Vichy. These were individuals
whose relations with the communists or the socialists had gone sour. Often
their motivation for joining forces with Vichy was inspired partly by a
strong pacifism. Vichy generally presented itself as the guarantor of
peace, a possibility for France to stay out of the conflict. This touched
a nerve with many, including some dissidents from the left. |
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The National Revolution |
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What
was the National Revolution?
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Origins
of the term The
expression ‘Révolution Nationale’ originally appeared in 1924 as the
title of a book by Georges Valois, leader of the pro-fascist Faisceau and
in the political discourse of the interwar extreme right movement
Jeunesses Patriotiques led by Pierre Taittinger. Pétain
never really liked the term- he preferred ‘Redressement National’ or
‘Rénovation Française’.
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The
purpose of the National Revolution The
traditionalist right at Vichy became convinced that French defeat was a
punishment for years of easily living and decadence- years in which she
had placed the notion of rights before that of duties, where the people
had lost the fundamental French values and been unwilling to sacrifice
themselves. The National Revolution was thus an attempt to regenerate
France by promoting what Vichy considered should be the key values of
French society. |
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The ideals of the National Revolution Return
to traditional French values Rural One
of the slogans used by the Vichy government was ‘Le retour à la terre’
(‘the return to the
land’)- an expression borrowed from the title of a 1905 book by a former
Minister of Agriculture Jules Méline. The government looked to promote
rural values and peasant culture. It tapped into traditional right wing
philosophy seeing the countryside as the true France. It therefore
encouraged outdoor life through youth camps in the countryside. Pétain
was himself the son of a farming family and therefore the regime’s
propaganda liked to present him as the ‘maréchal paysan’. Regionalism Vichy
called into question the Jacobin centralism which had been a feature of
much of post-revolutionary thought. On 11 July 1940, in one of his early
speeches Pétain, highlighted
his desire to return to the traditional French provinces. However,
although Vichy did create a new administrative level in April 1941 in the
shape of the regional Prefects, the Republican départements were not
abolished. Family Concern
about low birth rates in France actually pre-dated the war as can be seen
in the ‘Code de la Famille’, legislation from July 1939 designed to
encourage higher birth rates. The
1940 defeat clearly added to these concerns. In a speech of 20 June 1940 Pétain
attributed to France’s low birth-rate a central role in her defeat:
‘Trop peu d’enfants, trop peu d’armes, trop peu d’alliés, voila
les causes de notre défaite’. Vichy
was going to take pro-natalist efforts much further than the Republic had.
It saw the family as the essential unit of French society. It was here
that moral values should be learnt. Vichy was keen to promote family
values and to promote large families. Divorces were made more difficult to
obtain and the adultery of wives of prisoners of war was punished by the
State. Vichy legislation encouraged women to stay in the home and breed
and much greater emphasis was placed on Mothers’ Day celebrations.
Fathers of large families were glorified and received financial rewards.
The Vichy regime also developed much harsher laws against abortion.
Although abortion was already illegal before the war by a law of September
1941 practising abortion became a capital offence and two individuals were
executed for it (of whom the most famous was Marie-Louise Giraud,
guillotoined in 1943). Religion Vichy
clearly found religion a useful message to promote because inherent in the
Christian religion was the principle that out of suffering could come
greatness. Just as Christ’s sufferings had been salutatory, so French
suffering following defeat could allow the country to regenerate and
reconnect with its national purpose.
Vichy
saw the Catholic church was seen as a model for moral leadership. There
were some early attempts to re-impose catholic education in state schools
but these were rapidly abandoned. Although
Vichy often found itself in opposition to Protestants, Pétain saw
religious structures, whether they be catholic or protestant, as ways of
promoting disciplined lifestyles and moral values.
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Abolition
of some Republican values Vichy
attacked some of the symbols of the Republic. The statues of the peasant
girl Marianne, the symbol of Republican liberties, had traditionally been
very visible in town halls in France. However, these were often removed
under Vichy to be replaced with the bust of Marshal Pétain. Many street
names which contained republican references were replaced by names
containing references more appropriate to the current regime. However
it should be noted that Vichy didn’t do away with all aspects of
Revolutionary symbolism. For example, the Republican colours of red, white
and blue can often be seen in official propaganda and the Marseillaise
was still used in the southern zone although often the new regime
preferred its own hymn entitled ‘Maréchal nous voilà’.
The 14 July continued to be a national holiday. Vichy
did not just attack Republican symbolism but also more fundamental
Republican values. The
Republican triptych ‘Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité’ was replaced
with ‘Travail, Famille, Patrie’- a slogan which had been used by the
nationalist Croix de Feu movement in the 1930s . Many
traditional freedoms were abolished. It became much easier to intern
people without recourse to the legal process. There was a massive
expansion in police numbers, as the regime cracked down on its opponents. Censorship
grew massively in the media to such an extent that ideas hostile to the
current political regime were effectively banned from legally authorised
publications and could only exist if shrouded in ambiguity or if published
in clandestine publications. Vichy
rejected the parliamentary system because Pétain and many of his
supporters had a long-standing dislike of parliament. It persuaded
senators and deputies to vote full powers to Pétain on 10 July 1940 and
the parliament was never called again during the four years of the Vichy
government. No elections were allowed to take place in the period 1940-44.
The new government was strongly opposed to the principle of democracy and
removed from office some mayors and civil servants known for their
opposition to the new ideals. From August 1941 political parties were
banned from engaging in all political activity. Vichy
held the Third Republic, the regime which existed in France between 1870
and 1940, responsible for the defeat of France and on 30 July 1940 it
began to prepare legal proceedings against the leaders of the last years
of the Third Republic, who were interned from September 1940. A special
court was set up in the town of Riom near Vichy to organise a show trial
of these leaders. This court met between February and April 1942 but it
was an extraordinary parody of justice. The accused were allowed no
defence councils and Pétain publicly declared their guilt before the
court was even set up. However, the trial became a massive embarrassment
for Vichy because two of the accused, former Prime Ministers Léon
Blum and Edouard Daladier managed to successfully turn the tables on their
accusers by showing that responsibility for the defeat lay with the
military leadership of the early 1930s and in particular Marshal Pétain
and General Weygand. |
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Anti-egalitarianism Vichy
ministers generally shared a philosophy that people should know their
place in society and should not seek equality with their hierarchical
superiors. This involved a rejection of the notion of class struggle which
they considered as a source of division within the country. This was in
stark contrast to the Republic for which equality was a key value. |
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Authority Vichy
stressed the need for a strong political executive and insisted on an
extension of the prerogatives of the state allowing for greater state
intervention. Ministers
and civil servants were obliged to take an oath of loyalty to the head of
state from January 1941 and this was extended to other civil servants from
August 1941. Vichy
also tried actively to promote elites by setting up specialist training
schools- such as the Ecole des cadres d’Uriage. |
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Vichy’s
political platform- Fighting the ‘Anti-France’ The
traditionalists at Vichy had a Maurrassian concept of the nation- it
should be a closed, homogenous community. Vichy identified a number of
categories who it viewed as representing the ‘Anti-France’- groupings
that it held responsible for undermining the integrity of French society
leading it to military defeat in 1940. The
first group of outcasts were foreigners
Soon
after coming to power Vichy began implementing xenophobic policy.
Foreigners who had obtained French nationality through the process of
naturalisation in the interwar years now saw their status as French
citizens contested. Those naturalised since 1927 were stripped of their
rights by a law of 22 July 1940 which took French nationality away from
15000 individuals who had benefited under the terms of the 1927
legislation. The Marchandeau law of the late 1930s which had forbidden
xenophobic propaganda was scrapped. Jews
were also singled out for marginalisation The
Jews had been emancipated during the 1789 Revolution but this did not
prevent the continuance of an indigenous anti-Semitic tradition in France.
This
was seen most clearly in the Dreyfus affair. At the end for the 19th
century an army captain, the Jew Alfred Dreyfus, was wrongly accused of
spying for the Germans. This divided the public into an anti-Semitic camp
which viewed the affair as an opportunity to attack both the Jews and the
Republican tradition which had emancipated them and a Dreyfusard camp
determined to fight for equal rights and to defend the rights of an
individual wrongly accused. The Dreyfusard camp won but anti-Dreyfusards
remained vocal. The
1930’s and the defeat further harnessed anti-semitism. Throughout
the 1930s large numbers of Jews came into France to escape persecution in
Central Europe or Italy. This undoubtedly put a strain on French
resources. Some
French people felt that these Jews were trying to drag France into a war
with Germany. Others
viewed them with suspicion because of their central European nationality-
it was feared they could be using the cover of refugees to spy for
Germany. The
Daladier government interned many foreigners in 1939-40, including a
number of Jews who had fled fascism. Daladier’s government was concerned
for National Security, even if most of these foreigners were anti-nazis it
was possible that some may be spying for Germany. Vichy
defined Jews as second class citizens and set up a special administration,
known as a Commissariat, to deal with Jewish affairs. Free Masons
were subject to exclusion By
the law of 13 August 1940, secret societies were banned. This meant that
Masonic lodges were dissolved and free masons were dismissed from certain
jobs for example from August 1941 free masons were excluded from the civil
service. Free masons were required to declare themselves. Names of Free
Masons were made public in the government’s official publication, the
Journal Officiel. Free
masonry in France was associated with educational reform and
anti-clericalism and hence free-masons tended to be on the political left.
The
Free masons tended towards hostility against both the catholic church and
right wing politics. Communists Vichy
encouraged a hunting down of communists and tended to see Communist
conspiracies everywhere A
close watch was kept on communists and those who were viewed as dangerous
were interned or catalogued in a special document known as a ‘liste S’ Trade unionists In
August 1940 all trade union organisations were dissolved. Vichy also
abolished the right to strike. This can be seen as a revenge on the
Popular Front period (1936-1938) when workers had forced employers to make
concessions by engaging in a massive general strike in June 1936. |
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Vichy’s
main supporters The Armistice Army The
French army was restricted to 100,000 men by the terms of the armistice.
Those who were allowed to continue their military careers were generally
those who were favourable to the regime. Although Vichy did not celebrate
military violence (one line in ‘Maréchal
nous voilà’ even declaring ‘La
Guerre est inhumaine’) the regime was generally marked by an
attempt to restore the prestige of the army with many ministries being
held by Generals and Admirals. It seems that many in the armistice army
responded favourably to this. War Veterans Given
the importance of world war One in the memories of inter-war French people
it is no surprise that the Veterans’ associations should have formed a
powerful lobby between the wars. On 29 August 1940 Vichy amalgamated all
the existing Veterans’ associations into a single grouping, known as the
Légion des Anciens
Combattants. This organisation was designed to act as a sort of
go-between between the regime and the French people. It was supposed to
transmit the ideas of the regime to the French people but at the same time
to act as ‘les
yeux et les oreilles du Maréchal’ (‘the eyes and the ears
of the marshal’). The Germans, however, banned the association in the
northern zone. The
Légion became
increasingly divided as a section within it radicalised. Its more dynamic
elements formed a black-shirted pseudo-fascist group called the Service
d’Ordre Légionnaire (SOL) in January 1942. The SOL radicalised still
further in January 1943 and became the Milice Française. Catholics One
of the major divisions in Third Republic France had revolved around
questions of religion versus secularism and Catholics had often been
marked by their ambivalence, sometimes even outright hostility, towards
the Republic. They saw Republican France as persistently chipping away at
their privileges and were angered at the reduction of the role of
Catholicism within the education system. Much of the Catholic hierarchy
hoped that Vichy, which was promoting catholic values, would give the
church back much of its traditional influence. Although Catholics were
initially often firm supporters of Vichy they generally had reservations
about the Nazis, because the Nazis were thought to be persecuted Catholic
priests in Germany. Catholic
youth groups, such as the JOC and the JAC, were encouraged to promote the
ideals of the Vichy regime. Peasants Vichy
endlessly sung the praises of the peasantry in the early years of the
regime. Peasants could therefore hope for an input of resources and a
shift away from the Radical Republican practice of promoting more urban
values. Business leaders The
Vichy regime offered business leaders the chance to gain a revenge for the
Popular Front period which had been marked by strikes and employers’
concessions to the workers. However, Vichy’s failure to protect industry
from the worst of German requisitioning, in particular that of skilled
workers from 1942, caused a cooling of relations in some sectors of
industry. |
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Why
did the National Revolution fail? Ultimately
Vichy was never in as strong a position to impose its values on society as
either Mussolini or Hitler. Mussolini had the advantage of political
longevity, having come to power in the 1920s. Hitler was not only in power
for 12 years- allowing ample time to introduce reforms- but he was also at
the head of a state which enjoyed many military successes which clearly
encouraged adhesion (at least temporarily) to the regime. The Vichy regime
was only in power for four years and its situation was always accompanied
by the constraints of being a defeated nation and a partially occupied
power. Although
Vichy did initially enjoy a large degree of autonomy in the unoccupied
zone it was always subject to some German pressure. Getting its policies
applied in the northern, occupied, zones was subject to German agreement.
This ultimately hampered its freedom to act as pleased. Many
aspects of the National Revolution became impossible to implement for
practical reasons. For instance Vichy wanted to encourage women to stay in
the home and introduced legislation in October 1940 restricting their
access to the labour market. However, the government soon faced serious
labour shortages caused by the continued captivity in Germany of more than
one million French Prisoners of War and, particularly from the summer of
1942, the departure of workers for voluntary and forced labour schemes
(the Relève, Relève Obligatoire and the Service du Travail Obligatoire).
For this reason the government was forced to accept women into the work
force in ever greater numbers. Indeed female employment reached
unprecedented levels. Vichy
had initially tried to portray itself as a government of unity. However,
many of the measures of the National Revolution were clearly right wing
and many were divisive with the result that they made Vichy appear as a
sectarian government. Although anti-republican measures of the sort
introduced by Vichy drew on traditions inherent in the country, this
anti-republicanism was a minority current. In the 65 years since the Third
Republic’s constitution had first been drafted people had got so used to
the idea of freedom that they resented losing those freedoms now. When
Pierre Laval returned to power in April 1942 he began his second Vichy
premiership with the promise "nous nous
efforcerons de vous rendre cette liberté à laquelle vous êtes si
justement et si profondément attachés"[1]-
a promise he then clearly failed to honour. The government’s
liberticidal policies clearly flew in the face of public aspirations. When
Vichy tried to reintroduce catholic education in state schools it was
quickly forced by public opposition to back-track on the idea. Some
Republican values were clearly firmly entrenched. Besides, in the eyes of
much of the public Vichy was spending too much time in trying to impose
its values on society and not enough in trying to overcome their material
hardships. Although
Vichy did purge its administrations of some of the most fervent
pro-Republicans, it was clear that it could not take this procedure too
far, because it relied on the professional expertise of its civil servants
to enact its policies. Many of these officials within Vichy regimes were
essentially pro-Republican and therefore unlikely to feel any lasting
attachment to the National Revolution- leastways not once the shock of the
initial defeat had begun to subside[2]. Some
categories who were initial supporters of the National Revolution became
increasingly sceptical. Although peasants might have been flattered by the
place they held in Vichy discourse what they really wanted was fertiliser
and new machinery- things which Vichy proved incapable of providing in
sufficient quantities. Some fascists, like Marcel Déat, who were
initially prepared to engage with Vichy’s project rapidly found it too
tame and reactionary and so developed their own structures which ran in
competition to Vichy. It
should be noted that not all Vichy ministers felt that enthusiastic about
the National Revolution. Laval, for instance, viewed it with some disdain.
He was much more interested in negotiating collaboration than with busying
himself with reactionary political reforms. As his influence grew so the
importance attached to the traditionalist Vichy programme declined.
Increasingly Vichy became more concerned with negotiating collaboration
than organising internal reforms. The National Revolution project thus
became increasingly sidelined and was referred to rarely after the winter
of 1941-42. [1] Fred Kupferman, Laval, 1883-1945, Paris, Flammarion, 1983, p 323. [2]
In 1942 a Swedish newspaper commenting on France claimed perceptively
that the lack of a more profound purge of Vichy administrations was
one of the main reasons for the failure of the Révolution
nationale, claiming that: "if the old badly-cleansed bottle
with the new label is filled with old sour wine, with little new, the
result is that the whole bottle becomes sour": Stockholms-Tidningen,
15 September 1942.
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The Vichy government in a wider historical context
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| As can be seen from the list of French regimes since 1789 Republican and Monarchical regimes competed for power throughout the 19th century. Since 1870, however, French politics have been dominated by republican regimes with only Vichy standing out as an overtly anti-democratic government. |
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1789-92 constitutional monarchy: King’s powers limited by National Assembly 1792-1804 First Republic: elected National Assembly, but political power resides successively with the Committee of Public Safety (1793-95), the Directorate (1795-99) and the Consulate (1799-1804) 1804-15 First Empire: rule of Napoleon 1, legitimised by (rigged) plebisicites 1815-30 Restoration monarchy: Bourbon monarchy of Louis XVIII and Charles X, plus a parliament with limited powers 1830-48 Orleanist monarchy: contitutional monarchy with ministers responsible to a parliament elected by limited suffrage 1848-52 Second Republic: both National Assembly and President directly elected by universal adult male suffrage 1852-70 Second Empire: rule of Napoleon III, legitimised by plebiscites, with concessions to parliamentarianism from 1869 1870-1940 Third Republic: Chamber of Deputies elected by direct universal male suffrage, indirectly elected Senate, weak president and prime minister 1940-44 Vichy: personal rule of Marshal Philippe Pétain, constrained chiefly by the German Occupation of France 1944-46 Provisional post-war government: single-chamber Constituent Assemblies, elected by direct universal adult suffrage (including women voters) 1946-58 Fourth Republic: broadly comparable to Third, with weaker Senate and women’s suffrage 1958- the present Fifth Republic: directly-elected president; prime minister and government responsible to National Assembly; Senate
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| Source: Andrew KNAPP and Vincent WRIGHT, The government and politics of France, Routledge, London, 4th edition, 2001, p 4 |
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Etat Français, 11 July 1940-20 August 1944 11 July- 13 December 1940 13 December 1940-18 April 1942 18 April 1942-20 August 1944
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| MINISTERE DES AFFAIRES ETRANGERES | ||
| NOM DU MINISTRE/ SECRETAIRE D'ETAT | ARRIVEE | DEPART |
| Paul Baudouin* | 16-06-1940 | 28-10-1940 |
| Pierre Laval | 28-10-1940 | 13-12-1940 |
| Pierre-Etienne Flandin | 13-12-1940 | 09-02-1941 |
| François Darlan | 09-02-1941 | 18-04-1942 |
| Pierre Laval | 18-04-1942 | 17-08-1944 |
| * The first Pétain
government was still part of the Third Republic. 'Vichy' can be considered to
start with the government created on 12 July 1940
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| MINISTERE DE L'INTERIEUR | ||
| NOM DU MINISTRE/ SECRETAIRE D'ETAT | ARRIVEE | DEPART |
| Charles Pomaret* | 16-06-1940 | 27-06-1940 |
| Adrien Marquet | 27-06-1940 | 06-09-1940 |
| Marcel Peyrouton | 06-09-1940 | 16-02-1941 |
| François Darlan | 16-02-1941 | 18-07-1941 |
| Pierre Pucheu | 18-07-1941 | 18-04-1942 |
| Pierre Laval | 18-04-1942 | 30-12-1943 |
| Antoine Lemoine | 30-12-1943 | 13-06-1944 |
| Joseph Darnand | 13-06-1944 | 17-08-1944 |
| * The first Pétain
government was still part of the Third Republic. 'Vichy' can be considered to
start with the government created on 12 July 1940
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MINISTERE DU TRAVAIL*
* The first Pétain
government was still part of the Third Republic. 'Vichy' can be considered
to start with the government created on 12 July 1940 |
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MINISTERE DE LA PRODUCTION INDUSTRIELLE *
* From July 1940 to February 1941, 'Travail' and 'Production Industrielle' were both controlled by René Belin.
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| M. le Colonel Général
Keitel, Chef du Haut Commandement allemand, mandaté par le Führer du
Reich allemand et commandant suprême des forces armées allemandes, d'une
part, et M. le Général d'Armée Huntziger, M. Léon Noèl, Ambassadeur
de France, M. le Vice-Amiral Le Luc, M. le Général de Corps d'Armée
Parizot, M. le Général de l'Air Bergeret, Plénipotentiaires du
Gouvernement français munis de pouvoirs réguliers, d'autre part, sont
convenus de la convention d'armistice suivante:
ART.1. Le Gouvernement français ordonne la cessation des hostilités contre le Reich allemand, sur le territoire français, ainsi que dans les possessions, colonies, protectorats et territoires sous mandat et sur les mers. Il ordonne que les troupes françaises déjà encerclées par les troupes allemandes, déposent immédiatement les armes; ART 2. En vue de sauvegarder les intérêts du Reich allemand, le territoire français, situé au nord et à l'ouest de la ligne tracée sur la carte ci-annexée sera occupé par les troupes allemandes. Dans la mesure où les régions du territoire occupé ne se trouvent pas encore au pouvoir des troupes allemandes, leur occupation sera effectuée immédiatement après la conclusion de la présente convention; ART 3. Dans les régions
occupées de la France, le Reich allemand exerce tous les droits de la
puissance occupante. Le Gouvernement français s'engage à faciliter par
tous les moyens les réglementations relatives à l'exercice de ces droits
et à la mise en exécution avec le concours de l'Administration française.
Le Gouvernement français invitera immédiatement toutes les autorités et
tous les services administratifs français du territoire occupé à se
conformer aux réglementations des autorités allemandes et à collaborer
avec ces dernières d'une manière correcte. ART. 4. Les forces armées
françaises sur terre, sur mer et dans les airs devront être démobilisées
et désarmées dans un délai encore à déterminer. Sont exemptes de
cette obligation les troupes nécessaires au maintien de l'ordre intérieur.
Leurs effectifs et leurs armes seront déterminés par l'Allemagne ou par
l'Italie respectivement. ART. 5. Comme garantie de la stricte observation des conditions d'armistice il pourra être exigé que toutes les pièces d'artillerie, les chars de combat, les engins anti-chars, les avions militaires, les canons de la D.C.A., les armes d'infanterie, tous les moyens de traction et les munitions des unités de l'armée française engagés contre l'Allemagne et qui se trouvent, au moment de l'entrée en vigueur de la présente convention, sur le territoire qui ne sera pas occupé par l'Allemagne, soient livrés en bon état. La Commission allemande d'armistice décidera de l'étendue de ces livraisons. Il peut être renoncé à la livraison d'avions militaires si tous les avions encore en possession des forces armées françaises sont désarmés et mis en sécurité sous contrôle allemand; ART. 6. Les armes, munitions et matériel de guerre de toute espèce restant en territoire français non occupé -dans la mesure où ceux-ci n'auront pas été laissés à la disposition du Gouvernement français pour l'armement des unités françaises autorisées- devront être entreposées ou mises en sécurité sous contrôle allemand ou italien respectivement. Le haut commandement allemand se réserve le droit d'ordonner à cet effet toutes les mesures nécessaires pour empêcher l'usage abusif de ce matériel. La fabrication de nouveau matériel de guerre en territoire non occupé devra cesser immédiatement; ART. 7. Toutes les
fortifications terrestres et côtières avec leurs armes, munitions et équipements,
les stocks et installations de tout genre, se trouvant dans les régions
à occuper, devront être livrés en bon état. Devront être remis, en
outre, les plans de ces fortifications ainsi que les plans de celles déjà
prises par les troupes allemandes. ART. 9. Le Haut
Commandement français devra fournir au Haut Commandement allemand les
indications précises sur toutes les mines posées par la France, ainsi
que tous les barrages de mines dans les ports et en avant des côtes,
ainsi que sur les installations militaires de défense et de protection. ART. 10. Le Gouvernement
français s'engage à n'entreprendre à l'avenir aucune action hostile
contre le Reich allemand avec aucune partie des forces armées qui lui
restent, ni d'aucune autre manière. ART. 11. Jusqu'a nouvel
ordre, il sera interdit aux navires de commerce français de tout genre, y
compris les bâtiments de cabotage et les bâtiments de ports se trouvant
sous le contrôle français de sortir des ports. La reprise du trafic
commercial sera subordonnée à l'autorisation préalable du Gouvernement
allemand ou du Gouvernement Italien respectivement. ART. 12. Une interdiction
de décollage à l'égard de tous les avions se trouvant sur le territoire
français sera prononcée immédiatement. Tout avion décollant sans
autorisation préalable allemande sera considéré par l'aviation
militaire allemande comme avion ennemi et sera traité comme tel. ART. 13. Le Gouvernement
français s'engage à veiller à ce que, dans le territoire à occuper par
les troupes allemandes, toutes les installations, les outils et stocks
militaires soient remis intacts aux troupes allemandes. Il devra en outre
veiller à ce que les ports, les entreprises industrielles et les
chantiers navals restent dans l'état dans lequel ils se trouvent
actuellement et à ce qu'ils ne soient endommagés d'aucune façon, ni détruits.
Il en est de même pour les moyens et voies de communications de toute
nature, notamment en ce qui concerne les voies ferrées, les routes et
voies navigables, l'ensemble des réseaux télégraphiques et téléphoniques,
ainsi que les installations d'indication de navigabilité et de balisage
des côtes. En outre, le Gouvernement français s'engage, sur ordre du
Haut Commandement allemand, à procéder à tous les travaux de remise en
état nécessaires. ART. 14. Tous les postes émetteurs de T.S.F. se trouvant en territoire français doivent cesser sur le champ leurs émissions. La reprise des transmissions par T.S.F. dans la partie du territoire non occupée sera soumise à une réglementation spéciale; ART. 15. Le Gouvernement français s'engage à effectuer le transport en transit des marchandises entre le Reich allemand et l'italie, à travers le territoire non occupé dans la mesure requise par le Gouvernement allemand; ART. 16. Le Gouvernement français procédera au rapatriement de la population dans les territoires occupés, d'accord avec les services allemands compétents; ART. 17. Le Gouvernement
français s'engage à empêcher tout transfert de valeurs à caractère économique
et des stocks du territoire à occuper par les troupes allemandes dans les
territoires non occupés ou à l'étranger. ART. 18. Les frais d'entretien des troupes d'occupation allemande sur le territoire français seront à la charge du Gouvernement français; ART. 19. Tous les
prisonniers de guerre et prisonniers civils allemands, y compris les prévenus
et condamnés qui ont été arrêtés et condamnés pour des actes commis
en faveur du Reich allemand, doivent être remis sans délai aux troupes
allemandes. Le Gouvernement français est tenu de livrer sur demande tous
les ressortissants allemands désignés par le Gouvernement du Reich et
qui se trouvent en France, de même que dans les possessions françaises,
les colonies, les territoires sous protectorat et sous mandat. ART. 20. Les membres des forces armées françaises qui sont pri-sonniers de guerre de l'armée allemande resteront prisonniers de guerre jusqu'à la conclusion de la paix; ART. 21. Le Gouvernement français est responsable de la mise en sécurité de tous les objets et valeurs dont la remise en bon état ou la tenue à la disposition de l'Allemagne est stipulée dans cette convention ou dont le transfert en dehors de la France est défendu. Le Gouvernement français sera passible de dommages et intérêts pour toutes les destructions, dommages ou détournements contraires à la présente convention; ART. 22. Une Commission
d'armistice allemande, agissant sous les ordres du Haut Commandement
allemand, réglera et contrôlera l'exécution de la convention
d'armistice. ART. 23. Cette convention
entrera en vigueur aussitôt que le Gouvernement français sera également
arrivé, avec le Gouvernement italien, à un accord relatif à la
cessation des hostilités. ART. 24. La présente
convention d'armistice est valable jusqu'à la conclusion du traité de
paix. Elle peut être dénoncée à tout moment pour prendre fin immédiatement,
par le Gouvernement allemand si le Gouvernement français ne remplit pas
les obligations par lui assumées dans la présente convention. Signé:
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| Words by André
Montagard
Music by André Montagard & Chales Courtioux |
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Une flamme sacrée monte du sol natal Et la France enivree te salue Maréchal Tous tes enfants qui t’aiment et vénèrent tes ans A ton appel suprême ont répondu ‘présent’
Maréchal , nous voilà Devant toi le sauveur de la France Nous jurons, nous tes gars De servir et de suivre tes pas Maréchal , nous voilà Tu nous as redonné l’espérance La patrie renaîtra Maréchal, Maréchal, nous voilà
Tu as lutté sans cesse Pour le salut commun On parle avec tendresse Du héros de Verdun En nous donnons ta vie Ton génie et ta foi Tu sauves la patrie Une seconde fois
Maréchal , nous voilà Devant toi le sauveur de la France Nous jurons, nous tes gars De servir et de suivre tes pas Maréchal , nous voilà Tu nous as redonné l’espérance La patrie renaîtra Maréchal, Maréchal, nous voilà
Quand ta voix nous répète Afin de nous unir : ‘Français, levons la tête Regardons l’avenir!’ Nous, brandissant la toile Du drapeau immortel, Dans l’or de tes étoiles Npous voyons luire un ciel….
Maréchal , nous voilà Devant toi le sauveur de la France Nous jurons, nous tes gars De servir et de suivre tes pas Maréchal , nous voilà Tu nous as redonné l’espérance La patrie renaîtra Maréchal, Maréchal, nous voilà
La guerre est inhumaine Quel triste épouvantail! N’écoutons plus la haine, Exaltons le travail, Et gardons confiance Dans un nouveau destin, Car Pétain, c’est la France! La France, c’est Pétain! ! !
Maréchal , nous voilà Devant toi le sauveur de la France Nous jurons, nous tes gars De servir et de suivre tes pas Maréchal , nous voilà Tu nous as redonné l’espérance La patrie renaîtra Maréchal, Maréchal, nous voilà |
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quoted in: Philippe-Jean Hesse et Jean-Pierre Le Crom (eds), La protection sociale sous le régime de Vichy, PUR, Rennes, 2001, p 206
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Donnez, donnez pour le Secours national Donnez, donnez pour aider les malheureux; En répondant à l'appel du Maréchal Vous serez tous plus heureux et plus joyeux: C'est en donnant pour ceux qui souffrent Que l'on devient toujours meilleur; Si notre tronc est comme un gouffre vous le remplirez de tout coeur. Donnez, donnez, donnez Tout ce que vous avez, Nous vous dirons merci. Le Maréchal aussi.
Lorsque Pétain fit le don de sa personne, Il nous fallait aussi en mettrte un coup Et devant le drapeau qui frisonne Près de lui, nous venons tous, nous venons tous! Cat la Patrie a besoin de courage Pour se refaire et forcer le destin C'est Pétain qui est notre meilleur gage Vive Pétain! Vive Pétain! Vive Pétain!
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Nous avons eu tort, en 1939, de faire la guerre. Nous avons eu tort, en 1918, au lendemain de la victoire, de ne pas organiser une paix d'entente avec l'Allemagne. Aujourd'hui, nous devons essayer de le faire. Nous devons épuiser tous les moyens pour trouver la base d'une réconciliation définitive. Je ne me résous pas, pour ma part, à voir tous les vingt-cinq ou trente ans la jeunesse de nos pays fauchée sur les champs de bataille. Pour qui et pourquoi? Ma présence au gouvernement a une signification qui n'échappe à personne, ni en France, ni à l'étranger. J'ai la volonté de rétablir avec l'Allemagne et avec l'Italie des relations normales et confiantes. De cette guerre surgira inévitablement une nouvelle Europe. On parle souvent d'Europe, c'est un mot auquel, en France, on n'est pas encore très habitué. On aime son pays parce qu'on aime son village. Pour moi, Français, je voudrais que demain nous puissions aimer une Europe dans laquelle la France aura une place qui sera digne d'elle. Pour construire cette Europe, l'Allemagne est en train de livrer des combats gigantesques. Elle doit, avec d'autres, consentir d'immenses sacrifices. Et elle ne ménage pas le sang de sa jeunesse. Pour la jeter dans la bataille, elle va la chercher dans les usines et aux champs. Je souhaite la victoire de l'Allemagne, parce que, sans elle, le bolchevisme, demain, s'installerait partout. Ainsi donc, comme je vous le disais le 20 avril dernier, nous voilà placés devant cette alternative : ou bien nous intégrer, notre honneur et nos intérêts vitaux étant respectés, dans une Europe nouvelle et pacifiée, ou bien nous résigner à voir disparaître notre civilisation. Je veux être toujours vrai. Je ne peux rien faire pour vous sans vous. Nul ne saurait sauver une nation inerte ou rétive. Seule, l'adhésion du pays peut faire d'une politique sensée une politique féconde. Je sais l'effort que certains d'entre vous doivent faire pour admettre cette politique. L'éducation que nous avons généralement reçue dans le passé ne nous préparait guère à cette entente indispensable. J'ai
toujours trop aimé mon pays pour me soucier d'être populaire. J'ai à
remplir mon rôle de chef. Quand je vous dis que cette politique est la
seule qui puisse assurer le salut de la France et garantir son développement
dans la paix future, vous devez me croire et me suivre.
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German arrest of General Weygand
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Archives Nationales (AN) F60 1479 Novembre 1942
Philippe Pétain au gouvernement allemand M l'Ambassadeur J'ai appris avec stupéfaction que le Général WEYGAND, parti hier de Vichy pour Guéret, n'y était pas arrivé. Il était accompagné par des Inspecteurs de police français et, contrairement, à l'accord qui était intervenu avec les autorités allemandes, par suite sans doute d'un malentendu, il était suivi par une voiture de police militaire allemande. L'entretien qui avait eu lieu hier matin entre le Chef du Gouvernement, le Général WEYGAND et moi-même ne pouvait laisser aucun doute sur le loyalisme de cet officier général. Il s'était placé lui-même sous la protection de la police française et avait accepté une résidence choisie par le gouvernement. Son arrestation dans ces conditions serait plus blessante encore pour moi et pour le Président LAVAL que pour le Général WEYGAND. Je demande au Gouvernement allemand de mettre fin immédiatement à ce douloureux incident. Il faut que le Général WEYGAND puisse revenir à Vichy et je garantis vis-à-vis de l'armée allemande, sous ma responsabilité personnelle, les engagements pris par lui. |
| Background: In August 1944 the retreating Nazis forced Pétain to accompany them to Germany. In a letter he left behind, the Marshall tried to justify the position he had adopted since assuming power in 1940. He claims that he had protected France from worst crimes explaining that 'if I could no longer be your sword I wanted to remain your shield' ('si je ne pouvais plus être votre épée, j'ai voulu rester votre bouclier'). Most historians contest the extent to which Pétain genuinely did serve as a shield for France. |
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Philippe Pétain aux Français, Vichy le 20 août 1944 Français, Au moment où ce message vous parviendra, je ne serai plus libre. Dans cette extrémité où je suis réduit, je n'ai rien à vous révéler qui ne soit la simple confirmation de tout ce qui jusqu'ici m'a dicté ma conduite. Pendant plus de quatre ans, décidé à rester au milieu de vous, j'ai chaque jour cherché ce qui était le plus propre à servir les intérêts permanents de la France. Loyalement, mais sans compromis, je n'ai eu qu'un seul but: vous protéger du pire. Et tout ce qui a été fait par moi, tout ce que j'ai accepté, consenti, subi, que ce fût de gré ou de force, ne l'a été que pour votre sauvegarde. Car si je ne pouvais plus être votre épée, j'ai voulu rester votre bouclier. En certains circonstances, mes paroles et mes actes ont pu vous surprendre. Sachez enfin qu'ils m'ont alors fait plus de mal que vous n'en avez vous-mêmes ressenti. J'ai souffert pour vous, avec vous. Mais je n'ai jamais cessé de m'élever de toutes mes forces contre ce qui vous menaçait. J'ai écarté de vous des périls certains, il y en a eu, hélas, auxquels je n'ai pu vous soustraire. Ma conscience m'est témoin que nul, à quelque camp qu'il appartienne, ne pourra là-dessus me contredire. Ce que nos adversaires veulent aujourd'hui, c'est m'arracher à vous. Je n'ai pas à me justifier à leurs yeux. Je n'ai souci que des Français. Pour vous, comme pour moi, il n'y a qu'une France, celle de nos ancêtres. Aussi, une fois encore, je vous adjure de vous unir. Il n'est pas difficile de faire son devoir s'il est parfois malaisé de le connaître. Le vôtre est simple: vous grouper autour de ceux qui vous donneront la garantie de vous conduire sur le chemin de l'honneur et dans les voies de l'ordre. L'ordre doit régner, et parce que je le représente légitimement, je suis et je reste votre chef. Obéissez-moi et obéissez à ceux qui vous apporteront des paroles de paix sociale, sans quoi nul ordre ne saurait s'établir. Ceux qui vous tiendront un langage propre à vous conduire vers la réconciliation et la rénovation de la France, par le pardon réciproque des injures et de l'amour des nôtres, ceux-là sont des chefs français. Ils continuent mon oeuvre et suivent mes disciplines, soyez à leurs côtés. Pour moi, je suis séparé de vous, mais je ne vous quitte pas et j'espère tout de vous et de votre dévouement à la France, dont vous allez, Dieu aidant, restaurer la grandeur. C'est le moment où le destin m'éloigne. Je subis la plus grande contrainte qu'il puisse être donné à un homme de souffrir. C'est avec joie que je l'accepte, si elle est la condition de votre salut, si, devant l'étranger, fût-il allié, vous savez être fidèles, au vrai patriotisme, à celui qui ne pense qu'aux seuls intérêts de la France, et si mon sacrifice vous fait retrouver la voie de l'union sacrée pour la renaissance de la Patrie.
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Links concerning Collaboration, collaborators & Vichy ministers |
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Dictionary entry for Pétain Dictionary entry for Darlan (Jean) François Darlan |
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